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Activity 2m: Vaping: The tricks and loopholes e-cigarette and tobacco industries use to target young people A potential opportunity cost is the benefit (or net benefits) that is foregone when we purchase and consume e-cigarettes, such as the benefits foregone from the consumption of healthier alternatives, which have fewer negative effects (or even positive effects if healthy options are considered)

Nicotine Addiction & Brain Neurochemistry (AQA A Level Psychology): Revision Note Syllabus Edition First teaching 2017 Last exams 2026 Exam code: 7182 Written by: Laura Swash Reviewed by: Lucy Vinson Updated on The desensitisation hypothesis & dopamine The desensitisation hypothesis of nicotine addiction suggests that prolonged exposure to nicotine leads to reduced sensitivity of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors The desensitisation hypothesis is based on the action of nicotine in the brain and its effect on the neurotransmitter dopamine During smoking or vaping, the nicotine enters the body and stimulates the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain, and this increases the production of acetylcholine The activation of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors also leads to the production of dopamine in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the brain, which is part of the dopaminergic pathway also known as the main reward pathway transporting dopamine within the limbic system This dopamine is transported to the Nucleus accumbens , generating pleasure , reducing anxiety and increasing alertness by triggering activity in the frontal cortex The increased dopamine in the limbic system leads to pleasurable feelings Nicotine also stimulates the release of glutamate, which increases and speeds up the release of dopamine, thus increasing the rewarding effects However, the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors become desensitised after constant stimulation, which lowers the signal in the main rewards pathway and leads to more nicotine being needed to achieve the same effect The more nicotine that is used, the more tolerance increases, which leads to even more nicotine being needed and addiction is the result The nicotine regulation model If nicotine is not used for some time, then it is metabolised by the body and excreted by the kidneys This metabolisation and excretion of the nicotine leads the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors to become sensitised again This sensitisation produces withdrawal symptoms of agitation and anxiety The withdrawal symptoms are worse if nicotine use has been prolonged, as long-term use of nicotine increases the number of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, increasing the sensitisation and the subsequent agitation and anxiety Research which investigates nicotine addiction and brain neurochemistry Dani & Basi (2001) found that part of the reason nicotine is so addictive is that it acts upon the dopaminergic systems, which helps reinforce rewarding behaviour, showing a direct relationship between the neural mechanisms in the brain and the rewarding effects of smoking Domino (2004) used fMRI scans to track the blood flow in the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hippocampus immediately after smoking the first cigarette in the morning and found that the first cigarette had the largest effect, supporting the desensitisation hypothesis Cosgrove et al

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Brain nicotinic acetylcholine receptor occupancy: effect of smoking a denicotinized cigarette

Conflict and Resolution Escaping a fire started by a lighter Common interpretation: This suggests survival, adaptability, and the wisdom to step away

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