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Chi square test was used to look at the association between groups and to see the trend with age

Furthermore, studies in human lung carcinoma cell lines as well as primary human and rat lung cell cultures suggest that PM induces apoptosis by increasing mitochondrial ROS production leading to increased p53 expression as well as mitochondria-regulated apoptosis which is thought to cause remodeling and malignant transformation of airway epithelial cells 269

Of the dual users the reduction in the number of cigarettes smoked was very significant, on average they smoked 75% less than they had before

The chemicals in cigarette smoke contribute to the buildup of plaque in the arteries, leading to atherosclerosis, a major risk factor for ischemic stroke and heart attack

Minton, Balch & Company via Universal Digital Library

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